Stem Cells, Embryos and Cloning—Unravelling the Ethics of a Knotty Debate

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Introduction

The cloning of Dolly the sheep from somatic cells in 1996, the isolation of human embryonic stem cells in 1998, and the publication of the first drafts of the human genome in 2000 represent frontiers of remarkable new realms into which the biosciences are seeking to go. Each has been heralded by promises of untold benefits to be found in the new lands. Alongside the frequent rhetoric of progress and conquest, however, have also come many expressions of concern that some of the country ahead presents difficult ethical and social problems, which require treading carefully and some regions that should simply be left alone.

Dolly in particular has become an icon, epitomising the ambivalence of biotechnology—its promise and the dilemmas it poses. The photograph of her surrounded by a flock of paparazzi at the Roslin Institute outside Edinburgh also highlights that these frontiers have been reached in an era of instant global communications. There is unprecedented media interest and thus also great public awareness of these developments. No longer can biotechnology do its work in isolation and present its results to society for an assumed approval.

The near universal reaction against human cloning and the current European controversy over embryonic stem cells together highlight the fact that these are developments that call for a new type of contract between science and society. To determine the directions and priorities of such far reaching areas of the biosciences, a dialogue needs to be established with civil society. It is not sufficient to invite only the “usual partners” to the table—researchers, industrial companies, government funding agencies, patent lawyers and regulators. Increasingly, ordinary citizens are wanting to have more say in what applications should go ahead, whether there are some areas to hold back from for the time being, some to forbid altogether, and where the research itself is going. The European Commission's recent conference “Stem Cells—Therapies for the Future” was an example, in that a two day conference had not only state of the art scientific presentations, but also substantial sessions set aside for ethical issues and for participative public discussion.1

This paper was presented at a similar symposium, organised at the European Molecular Biology Laboratory in Heidelberg in June 2001.2 It explores the ethical issues raised first by reproductive cloning and then by human stem cell research. The Society Religion and Technology Project of the Church of Scotland has been in the forefront of ethical debate on cloning and stem cells since 1996.3., 4., 5., 6., 7., 8. It has been in ongoing dialogue with the Roslin scientists since 1994 and also with the wider research community, Government, European and regulatory bodies. It has also sought to promote public discussion through talks and debates, drama, and the media. The paper also draws from the work of the bioethics working group of the Conference of European Churches, of which the author is also a member. This group brings together specialists in biotechnological, medical, legal, ethical and theological fields from Protestant and Orthodox churches in several European countries, and has published two reports on these issues.9., 10.

Section snippets

Reproductive cloning

The original intention of the Roslin Institute to pursue nuclear transfer cloning in sheep lay in its potential as a method to produce farm animals directly from genetically modified cells. This aim was for novel medical purposes, especially in producing therapeutic proteins in milk and eggs, or making their organs more compatible for human transplantation.11 Nuclear transfer offered a way to make to make more precise genetic changes than had been possible by existing methods. Some notable

Human stem cells

The main focus on human somatic cell cloning has rightly turned to its potential therapeutic applications. This has become combined in a wider and equally controversial discussion about human stem cells. Dramatic medical possibilities are opened up by the recent ability to derive human embryonic stem (ES) cells. The potential to redirect them to become replacement cells for a wide range of tissue types could lead to treatments for diseases like Parkinson's, heart disease and diabetes. But

Conclusions

A comprehensive case has been made why reproductive human cloning is ethically unacceptable on both inherent and consequential grounds. In contrast, the situation for stem cells is highly complex, which depends on the context in which the question is put. If the question is phrased only in terms of therapeutic outcomes then there would be a strong ethical case for pursuing all lines of research, adult, cord blood stem cells, embryonic stem cells by IVF and cloning routes, and direct

Looking to the future: human life extension

Some other and largely unspoken ethical questions remain. How far can “medical benefit” be used as a sufficient reason for research? If the effect of success in cell replacement technologies is a population that is greatly older in years than it used to be, what would be the implications for the expectations of life?

If cell replacement could treat such diseases as heart failure and Alzheimer's, could life expectancy in western Europe rise from 80 to 100 or even 120? What we call “old age” might

Donald Bruce spent 15 years in chemistry research and risk assessment in nuclear energy. In 1992 he did a diploma in theology at Oxford and became Director of the Society, Religion and Technology Project (SRT) of the Church of Scotland. SRT was established in 1970 to address ethical and social issues arising out of modern technology. He chairs a unique inter-disciplinary working group on genetic engineering, and has been engaging since 1994 with Roslin Institute and PPL on ethical issues of

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    Donald Bruce spent 15 years in chemistry research and risk assessment in nuclear energy. In 1992 he did a diploma in theology at Oxford and became Director of the Society, Religion and Technology Project (SRT) of the Church of Scotland. SRT was established in 1970 to address ethical and social issues arising out of modern technology. He chairs a unique inter-disciplinary working group on genetic engineering, and has been engaging since 1994 with Roslin Institute and PPL on ethical issues of cloning and stem cells. He is in the forefront of the ethical debate on these issues in the UK and Europe. He is a frequent broadcaster and has been an invited speaker at the Oxford Union, the World Congress on Bioethics, EXPO 2000 and the 2001 EC Stem Cell conference in Brussels. Dr Bruce has written position papers on cloning and stem cells for the Church of Scotland (1997) the Conference of European Churches (1999 and 2001). He is a member of the public issues advisory committee of the UK Biotechnology Research Council and is an observer to the International Bioethics Committee of UNESCO. His publications include Engineering Genesis (1998, Earthscan), Modifying Creation (2001, Paternoster) and chapters on cloning in Human Cloning—the Religious Aspects (1997, Westminster John Knox) and Beyond Cloning (2001, Trinity Press).

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